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Ref. The IUP Jr. of Organizational Behavior". Oct.'08

Summery
Stress, Social Support, Job Attitudes and Job Outcome Across Gender

-- Niharika Gaan,
Stress (role ambiguity, role conflict and work overload), social support (supervisory support and team support), job attitudes (organizational commitment and job satisfaction), and job outcome (turnover intention) across gender were studied among 240 information system professionals. The results demonstrate that women experience higher role ambiguity and supervisory support. Job attitudes and job outcome do not differ across gender. Further, the results do not confirm the findings of the earlier studies, as it asserts that role ambiguity is positively and significantly related to organizational commitment and job satisfaction. The implications of research and practice have been discussed thereafter.

Information about -Book-Exhibition

This is to inform all the students and staff that A Book-Exhibition would be organized by us on 16th February, 2010. Books on Computer Science and Information Technology published by various standard publishers would be available on discounted price.
Timings: 10 a.m. to 5p.m.
Venue:
Seminar Hall (Ground Floor)
N.G.Acharya & D..K.Marathe College,
Near Subhash Nagar, N. G. Acharya Marg,
Chembur, Mumbai-400071

Librarian

Ref. Jr. of Professional Banker. February '10.

MICROFINANCE

Development Strategy for Microfinance

Microfinance is still an evolving sector in countries like India as compared to many developed countries where it is highly commercialized through created partnerships, leveraged public and private sectors assets, and shared know-how mechanisms. The lessons from some of the best-managed microfinance institutions around the world show that use of certain methods like group lending, peer guarantees, step-ladder lending, matching repayment terms with borrower cash-flows, etc., have contributed largely to their success.

Microfinance, today, has become one of the most debated and documented topics but is still a very much confused buzzword in the banking sector. In the most simplistic way, it can be explained as `banking for the poor'. As the name implies, most transactions under `microfinance' involve small amounts of money. The term actually has a much wider meaning. It is claimed to be a powerful tool, which can be used effectively to address poverty, empower the socially marginalized poor and strengthen the social fabric. And when it is directed at women, the benefits accruing out of the microfinancing activities are expected to multiply manifold. That is why it is supposed to be changing lives of those associated with it. Today, microfinancing is considered a more pragmatic way of providing financial assistance to the less privileged.

In India, microfinance has been defined as provision of thrift, credit and other financial services and products of very small amounts to the poor in rural semi-urban or urban areas for enabling them to raise their income levels and improve living standards.

But the way in which the banking sector has evolved the world over has not been truly inclusive. So, people with no or meagre physical collateral get completely marginalized. However, it is heartening to see that, of late, policymakers across the globe have realized that it is difficult to sustain the growth momentum unless the marginalized masses are brought into the mainstream economy. This has increased the general level of interest in newer and innovative ways of providing financial and banking assistance to the marginalized people.

Today, the concept of microfinance has become a major credit disbursement mechanism in many parts of the world. It now refers to loans, savings, insurance, transfer services and other financial products targeted at low-income clients. It covers the following activities:

Microcredit: It is a small amount of money lent to a client by a bank or other institution. Microcredit can be offered, often without collateral, to an individual or through group lending.

Microsavings: These are deposit services that allow one to save small amounts of money for future use. Often without minimum balance requirements, these savings accounts allow households to save in order to meet unexpected expenses and plan for future investments.

Microinsurance: It is a system by which businesses and other organizations make a payment to share risks. Access to insurance enables entrepreneurs to concentrate more on developing their businesses, while mitigating other risks that could affect the business.

Remittances: These are transfers of funds from people in one place to people in another, usually across borders to family and friends. Compared with other sources of capital that can fluctuate depending on the political or economic climate, remittances are a relatively steady source of funds.

Relevance of Microfinance

At present, microlending to the economically active poor—both urban and rural—is pegged at around Rs. 7,000 cr in the Indian banks' credit outstanding. As against this, according to even the most conservative estimates, the total demand for credit requirements from this part of Indian society is somewhere around Rs. 2,00,000 cr. Hence, there is a need for a mix of banks and other intermediaries who can help to meet this demand-supply mismatch. This is a huge gap which the Indian banking industry alone can never be able to fill. Deprived of banking facilities, the rural and semi-urban Indian masses are still relying on informal financing intermediaries like moneylenders, etc. According to an estimate, moneylenders still meets more than 56% of rural people's credit needs. But, some government statistics reveal that the share of institutional credit is much more now.

Whatever be the quantum of non-institutional credit, there is no doubt that the share of institutional credit has to improve further. That is why more and more emphasis is now been placed on providing finance and other banking options to the unbanked masses through Microfinance Institutions (MFIs), Non-Government Organizations (NGOs), Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and other financial institutions.

Now, let us look at the way in which the relative share of different credit disbursing mechanisms has fared in the last 60 years.

The share of commercial banks in institutional credit has come down by almost the same percentage during this period. Though the share of cooperative societies is increasing continuously, the growth has flattened during the last three decades. One more startling fact that has come to the surface from the All-India Debt and Investment Survey was that the households with a lower asset size were unable to find financing options from formal credit disbursement sources. This was due to the requirement of physical collateral by banking and financial institutions for disbursing credit. For the households with less than Rs. 20,000 worth of physical assets, the most convenient source of credit was non-institutional agencies like landlords, moneylenders, relatives, friends, etc.

While almost 75% of the production credit was met by the formal sector, mainly banks and cooperatives, almost the entire demand for consumption credit was met by informal sources at high to exploitative interest rates that varied from 30% to 90% per annum. Due to the inability to offer any security for their small consumption loans, the poor were unable to take short-term consumption loans from the formal banking system even through the RBI guidelines did provide for granting of consumption credit by banks. Consequently, a large number of the rural poor continued to remain outside the fold of the formal banking system.

Banking Expansion

Increasing access to credit for the poor has always remained at the core of Indian planning in the fight against the poverty. Starting in the late 1960s, India was home to one of the largest state interventions in the rural credit market. This phase is known as the `social banking' phase. It witnessed the nationalization of the 16 private commercial banks in 1969, followed by six more in 1980, massive expansion of branch network in rural areas, mandatory directed credit to priority sectors of the economy, subsidized rates of interest and creation of a new set of regional rural banks at the district level and a specialized apex bank for agriculture and rural development at the national level.

These measures resulted in impressive gains in rural outreach and volumes of credit. The branches of commercial banks increased from 8,262 in 1969 to 71,262 by the end of March 2007 and the average customers per branch office decreased from 64,000 to 14,000 during the same period. There has been a spectacular growth in providing banking services to the masses. However, there are certain underbanked states, such as Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal and a large number of north-eastern states, where the average population per branch office continues to be quite high compared to the national average, particularly in rural areas.

The fact that bank expansion has been skewed becomes apparent when we consider deposits of scheduled commercial banks and bank credit as a proportion of Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) at current prices. The NSDP is a measure of the economic activity in the state and comparing it with the utilization of bank credits or bank deposits indicates how much of the economic activity banks are financing and whether there exists untapped potential for increasing deposits in that state. For instance, the percentage of bank deposits is pretty high in Bihar and Jharkhand, or these states are not as underbanked as they are thought to be. While it is well-known that the Northeastern states are underbanked, states such as Andhra Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan, too, have a low bank credit-deposit ratio. In contrast to this scenario, banks have already tapped most of the potential states, such as Punjab and Maharashtra as far as bank deposits are concerned.

Hill states, such as Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh and even Arunachal Pradesh have a surprisingly high proportion of bank deposits to state domestic product. If banks wish to expand into areas where the potential of deposits has been relatively untapped, they would have to expand in states, such as Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan.

This skewed banking expansion is also reflected in the per capita credit outstanding of some of the states and union territories. If closely observed, we can see a huge disparity in the per capita outstanding credit in Chandigarh and Delhi, on the one hand, and the rest of the states on the other. Bihar and Jharkhand stay at the bottom of the list with just around Rs. 2,000, whereas, the figures for Chandigarh and Delhi surpass the `one lakh' mark.

Due to the nature of the expansion of banking services in the country and constraints on banking entities, microfinance and microfinancing activities of banks and SHGs have grown to new heights. This depicts how the SHG-bank linkage program, initiated by Nabard, has helped millions of Indians in improving their lifestyle and also contributed to the development of the economy.

International Experience

Microfinance has changed many lives in diverse societal settings across the globe. It is being exploited as a tool for financial liberation in underdeveloped, developing and even developed countries. It helps in creating a more inclusive financial universe for the whole society. By trying to make more people a part of the network, an inclusive financial sector allows poor and low-income people to access credit, insurance, remittances and savings products. In many countries, the formal and institutional financial sectors do not provide these services to the lower income segments. An inclusive financial sector will support the full participation of the lower income levels of the population to promote economic growth.

Now, let us have a look at some of the best practices that are followed across the world.

Developing and Least Developed Countries

Asia, Latin America and Africa badly need a financial system that is more inclusive in nature. It is because there is already a scarcity of capital even for funding the basic minimum growth. The financial and banking institutions in these countries find themselves unable to address the microcredit demands. As a result, several new institutions emerged in these countries, which addressed the problem of unavailability of funds to the poor or people with small physical assets. Government regulators and international institutions have started giving assistance to these institutions for a better microfinancing institutional framework. Policymakers have realized that these MFIs are potentially a very significant contributors to gender equality and women's empowerment, as well as pro-poor development and civil society strengthening. Through their contribution to women's ability to earn an income, these financing programs have the potential to initiate a series of `virtuous spirals' of economic empowerment, increased well-being of women and their families and wider social and political empowerment. Microfinance services and groups involving women also have the potential to question and significantly change men's attitudes and behaviors as an essential component of achieving gender equality.

There are several examples that have been instrumental in improving the living conditions of small farmers, artisans, pensioners, etc. And these have been done with a `positive bias towards the women' of these segments of the society. Let us now look at some of them.

Grameen Bank, Bangladesh: The Grameen Bank is the brainchild of one of the prominent economists and Nobel laureate, Muhammad Yunus. The bank is the result of the experiment carried out by him in 1976. The bank was an immediate success and the project, with government support, was introduced in 1979 in Tangail district in Bangladesh. The bank continued to grow and prosper and it soon spread to various other districts of Bangladesh and in 1983, it was transformed into an independent bank by the legislature of Bangladesh. The bank provides small loans to the rural poor. As of December 2008, there were more than 2,319 branches and its services were being offered in approximately 74,462 villages, covering more than 89% of the total villages in Bangladesh. Ninety-seven percent of the borrowers are women.

The system is the basis for the microcredit and the SHG system. Every group, comprising around five individuals, is loaned, but if even a single person defaults, then the entire group is denied loans in future.

ShoreBank, US: There are some communities even in the developed economies, which are at a comparative disadvantage in acquiring loans. The ShoreBank was founded in 1973 for lending to underserved communities and in the development of microcredit and microfinance loans for the benefit of the local residents in the South Side of Chicago. Frequently called the `inventors' of community development banking, ShoreBank's successful community lending models have been a source of inspiration for the community development banking institutions around the world.

Over the last 30 years, loans made by ShoreBank, especially home mortgage loans and loans to small businesses, have contributed to the economic resurgence of Chicago neighborhoods, such as Austin, Bronzeville, Chatham, Kenwood, and most dramatically, South Shore. Over one-quarter of all mortgage and rehabilitation loans in the South Shore area have been made through ShoreBank. The bank has helped finance the purchase and renovation of 49,000 affordable housing residences. Between 2000 and 2008, it issued nearly 900 million in loans to citizens in Chicago, Detroit and Cleveland.

Key Issues for Indian Banks

Now, let us look at some of the major issues, which are related to the microfinance activities and institutions. The issues range from the necessity to the viability of the programs itself.

Indian Banks' Perspective

Risk-return Analysis: Risks involved in lending to small borrowers imply a high probability of default of repayments. There are many interesting observations in this regard.

Experience of different social agencies in microlending suggests that poor people are more prompt in repaying debts. For example, the repayment rate of Grameen Bank is 98%; SEWA is more than 92%, etc. The repayment rate is as high for almost all microlending institutions, as the default rate hovers around a maximum of 10% only.

However, according to statistics, the default rate for banks in the same segment is as high as 40%. That is why they are a bit hesitant in providing microcredits to the poor. Apart from the default risks, microcredit also has yield risks and price risks attached to it. Banks and other formal credit disbursement institutions are exposed to several risks and impediments in this area.

But when we look at the returns that can accrue from this segment, it will be a good business proposition to increase lending to this sector. Looking at the Indian scenario, the size of the credit requirement is expected to be much more than the estimation of the market size of 50 million families and between Rs. 30,000 and Rs. 45,000 cr. If the dimension is expanded to include the relative poor rather than only the absolute poor, the market size may expand to 50% of the population. This is a market that any business entity can hardly ignore and it is for this reason that more and more banks and other institutions are coming to this sector.

Barriers faced by Indian banks in Microfinancing

The barriers to the banks in India are mainly regulatory, policy-related and operational. As per the regulatory norms, there are caps on the number of branches or extension counters that any bank can open. This puts a serious limitation on banks even when they want to open more branches in profitable area vis-à-vis microfinance operations.

Standard and regulatory requirements with which commercial banks have to comply, particularly with regard to unsecured lending and interest rates, are not suitable for microfinance operations. The organizational structures, procedures, products and methods used by these banks are not suitable to microfinance, and changing them would be time-consuming, as well as expensive. Our banks' marketing, appraisal and supervision capacity for microfinance lending is quite inadequate. There are also cultural barriers, which are difficult to overcome. Often the staff of perceives the poor as unbankable and do not show any interest in reaching out to them.

Microfinance Development Strategy for Commercial Banks

First of all, it is necessary to realize that microfinance is not a panacea but is one of the effective tools to help the poor from a self-development perspective. Hence, extremely poor people like those suffering from malnourishment and other ailments cannot be considered. This is because intervention in the form of microfinance will not be an efficient solution for them. The problems of such people have to be tackled at the government level through an appropriate mix of welfare measures. So, the prime task for the commercial banks is to examine and identify the target groups for microfinance operations. Once identified, rest of the activities can be started by focusing attention on their needs _ as deprived people require much broader interventions. For instance, micro entrepreneurs, with meager capital require not just financial capital or services but a home, good health, education, etc. Our banks have to create specialist cells to study the total requirements of these groups and come up with tailor-made products and services for them. They must also understand that these groups are heterogeneous in nature and, hence, products and services developed for them have to be highly diversified and target-specific.

Conclusion

Indian commercial banks are, no doubt, involved in microfinance both indirectly and directly. In the first case, they offer operational banking support to MFIs or NGOs; or refinance MFIs; or participate in the equity of such an institution. Similarly, in some cases, they have directly created products and services for targeted clients and opened branches with dedicated windows to provide microfinance. The staff at these branches also undertakes primary, as well as secondary, market research on the types and size of activities run by micro entrepreneurs and the characteristics of the industries they work in. However, microfinance is still an evolving sector in countries like India, as compared to many developed countries, where it is highly commercialized through created partnerships, leveraged public and private sectors assets, and shared know-how mechanisms. The experiences from some of the best managed MFIs around the world show that use of certain methods like group lending, peer guarantees, step-ladder lending, matching repayment terms with borrower cash-flows, etc., have contributed largely to their success. So, time has come to competently use information technology and performance-linked incentives for staff to improve the outreach of microfinance.

-- Dr. BK Swain

Ref. -HRM Review. January '10.

Best Practices of HR in Service Sector : An SME Service Industry Perspective

-- Tilly Chacko M
Lecturer,
SCMS School of Technology and Management,
Aluva.
The author can be reached at
tillychacko@scmsgroup.org

This article has been written based on the Human Resources (HR) practices followed by an SME service industry. It tries to reveal the HR practices, where some of the best practices are followed to maintain a peaceful atmosphere and good working conditions. This will help the SME managers to get an insight in order to improve their efficiency. It mainly discusses the HR mantras of the company and the HR strategies that they follow - Recruitment, Induction, Learning and Development, Communication Channel, Performance Management System, Compensation Management, Motivational Initiatives, and Retention Strategies.

Management is the art of getting extraordinary results from ordinary people. Human Resource Management (HRM) is also a management function concerned with hiring, motivating and maintaining people in an organization. It focuses on people in organizations.

Knowledge, as a principal factor of competition and quality advantage, today, has a crucial role in the development of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). As a part of their evolution process SMEs are being given more concentration towards territory development and production growth. Managers are interested in training courses that suit their needs, are flexible and provide innovative solutions without constraints of time and space. Modern organizations are today looking for `knowledge management' strategies and processes to be able to collect information and expertise knowledge, coming from individuals and accessible to everybody.

SMEs and Small and Medium Businesses (SMBs) are companies whose headcount or turnovers fall below certain limits. In India, the Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs) sector plays a pivotal role in the overall industrial economy of the country. It is estimated that in terms of value, the sector accounts for about 39% of the manufacturing output and around 33% of the total exports of the country. Further, in recent years, the MSE sector has consistently registered higher growth rate, compared to the overall industrial sector. The major advantage of the sector is its employment potential at low capital cost. As per available statistics, this sector employs an estimated 31 million people, spread over 12.8 million enterprises, and the labor intensity is estimated to be almost four times higher than large enterprises.

Since the first car rolled out on the streets of Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1898, the Automobile Industry of India has come a long way. During its early stages, the auto industry was overlooked by the government and their policies were also not favorable. The liberalization policy and various tax reliefs provided by the Government of India in recent years have made a remarkable impact on the Indian automobile industry. The Indian automobile industry, which is currently growing at the rate of 18% per annum, has become a hot destination for global auto players. A well-developed transportation system plays a key role in the development of an economy and India is no exception to it. With the growth of the transportation system, the automobile industry of India is also growing at a rapid speed, occupying an important place on the `canvas' of the Indian economy. Today, the Indian automobile industry is fully capable of producing various kinds of vehicles and can be divided into three broad categories: cars, two wheelers and heavy vehicles.

The article describes Popular Vehicles & Services Ltd., established in 1983-84, which is a subsidiary of a famous group which traces its history back to 1939 and has interests in automobile spares and education. It established an envious position in automobile retailing. Popular is the first Maruti dealership, started in 1983-84 at Thiruvananthapuram, the capital city of Kerala. The Kochi branch has been functioning since October 1985 and the third dealership was started at Kozhikode in 1996. The first Maruti dealership outside Kerala was inaugurated in March 2003, in Chennai. The group has grown into a business house, with a turnover of over Rs. 1000 cr and with an employee strength of above 4,500.

The problems faced by a service industry are: mainly lower productivity levels, poor quality products and services, high levels of complaints from customers, loss of customers with subsequently lower revenues, higher costs, higher staff turnover and poor industrial relations. In order to overcome all these problems, the HR managers should be vigilant and their strategies should be competent.

HR Mantras of the Company

An employee should feel happy to come to work;

An employee should be happy and productive while at work;

At the end of the day, the employee should return home in a relaxed frame of mind and spread happiness, and

To improve is to change, to become more effective, change has to happen often.

The human resource strategies of this SME are based on the concept that the employees should feel cared for. They believe that employee empowerment is the key word in a service industry. Given below are the strategies followed by the SME.

Recruitment

One of the most crucial roles of an HR manager is recruitment. According to experts, the biggest problem is talent crunch due to extraordinary growth. This SME recruits by selecting people with passion and quality, because only then will the employees stay longer with the company. Through buddy schemes, the company recruits the relatives or friends of the employees. The consultants of the company are: `Headhunters' and `Thomas International'. Thomas's profiling is helpful for the recruitment process. They have a three-tier interview process, including psychological tests. In reference checks, previous employers are preferred, as they are aware of the applicant's performance.

Induction

After an applicant has been selected, he or she must be oriented and placed on the chosen job. Induction is a planned introduction of employees to their jobs and co-workers. The organizational induction manual of the company includes: job description, role clarity and career path. It helps employees to get a clear idea of their job profile.

Learning and Development

It attempts to improve the current or future employee: performance by improving their abilities to perform through learning, usually by changing their attitude or increasing their skills and knowledge. In this SME, the gestation period has been reduced to 3 months, from the earlier 6 months. Their attempt is to reduce it to 1 month. As part of their learning and development, one can see an attempt to build a work culture. ASHA 20081 is an example. ASHA refers to Attitude, Synergy, Harmony and Achievement. Leadership development programs are also being conducted. Another attempt of the company in the learning process is "one book a month". In this learning process, on a monthly basis, one book is issued to a person, who is the team leader for that month. He has to read the book and make a capsule presentation. The book will then be gifted to him. Through this method, they are trying to incorporate the latest information in the field.

Performance Management System

It is an objective assessment of an individual's performance against well-defined benchmarks. Their performance management system includes self appraisal, 360-degree appraisal, mentoring and job rotation. Here, we see the high and low- level performance appraisal system. High performers have to be engaged with complex assignments all the time and groomed to take up top positions. Low performers are asked to improve their performance level. In self appraisal, the employees themselves use a particular format provided by the company to evaluate their performance. In the 360-degree appraisal system, performance of an employee is rated by superiors, peers, subordinates and clients. During counseling sessions, employees get a chance to share their problems with mentors. Job rotation is a part of their strategy. This helps the employees to move from one job to another in order to add variety and reduce boredom.

Compensation Management

Compensation management of the company includes a compensation survey in order to simplify and compare the complex compensation structure. A good compensation survey uses standard, proven methods of data gathering and statistical analysis to determine how much companies pay for a specific job in a specific industry. According to the variable pay scheme policy of the organization, 60% pay is fixed. The remaining 40% is according to the performance. The company also makes attractive incentive payments to encourage the employees indulge in conspicuous consumption.

Motivational Initiatives

Motivated employees are always looking for a better way to do their job. The SME follows a suggestion scheme. Through this, the employee can express their suggestions in the workplace. If that suggestion is being adopted, then the suggester will benefit. In order to relax at work, employees engage themselves in various games. Employees are not encouraged to sit late after work. Incentive trips are offered to employees who achieve their targets. From each department, best performers are selected monthly and are honored with the `Star Performer' award. This is to motivate the back office people as well. Organizations must be able to create and maintain effective partnerships across departments. These cross-functional relationships can increase quality, conserve resources and speed up the response time. Although most managers recognize the importance of cross-functional teams, very few organizations effectively build and nurture these relationships. In this organization, we can see this cross-functional recognition. In order to create a family atmosphere, family events are arranged on Independence Day. This helps the family members to meet and creates a healthy relationship with each other.

Communication Channel

Openness and transparency is the mantra of the company. It believes that its strength depends on a strong communication channel. Every month, interactive sessions with top-level managers are held. This is known as session "C". Here, the employees get a chance to reveal their problems, if any. They follow an open door policy. E-learning programs are conducted as an information window. They follow the grievance redressal system, where each and every employee can reach his or her immediate superior. It is like a bottom to top-level arrangement. Presently, a centralized grievance cell is not functional in the company. Issues are being solved at the unit level itself and there are around 35 units. Whatever may be the problem, they try to solve it within 48 hours.

Retention Strategies

The retention strategies followed by the company are: flexible working hours, counseling, stay interview and an active alumni club. The flexible working hours, called flextime are intended to suit the convenience of individual employees. Functioning of a counseling cell is deemed to be effective. The company seeks help from external mentors. Instead of conducting exit interviews, the strategy of the company is to conduct a stay interview. In the questionnaire, the name is optional. Through this interview, employees can share their problems and the company takes a proactive approach, rather than conducting a post action. The alumni club is very active. People who leave the organization can remain in touch with the company. The reputation of the company helps the employees get a better job, even without an interview, sometimes.

Achievements and Recognition of the Company

Achieved Best Practices Award five times in a row from Maruti.

Has won Kerala State Productivity Award thrice.

Top ranked in Employee Satisfaction Survey conducted by Maruti.

HR Practices Award Winner since inception.

Conclusion

The positive gains of these practices are: a low attrition rate of about 12% and the absence of a trade union even after 25 years of its service in Kerala. No industrial dispute has been reported yet. The sense of belonging among the employees has kept the unions away. As a CSR initiative, they are running a driving school in a no loss no profit strategy.

Ref.- Jr. of History and Culture. October' 07

Globalization and Cultural Boundaries: An Anthropological Perspective

- Aliaa R Rafea
Associate Professor,
Sociology Department,
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail: aliaar@optomatica.com

While anthropological and social scholarly works have been concerned with demonstrating how the flow of people, trade, and ideas affect local people in different parts of the world, either by emphasizing adherence to local traditions as a counter reaction to global hegemony, or discussing the changing aspects of cultures and identities within the context of transnationalism as a process that followed globalization, this paper takes the subject to another dimension where it critically examines the underlying premises of globalizing the world, yet it charts out a path to find our human universals. Using anthropological theories, this paper revisits aspects of the relativity of cultures. It aims at drawing another vision of observing how the world can come to common terms through understanding the inherited reasons for clashes, not from an ideological perspective, but through using anthropological premises, supported by its findings. In order to do that, it demonstrates the fallacy of dichotomizing our history into east and west, or the west and the rest, and clarifies the confusion between political and cultural conflicts.

The term globalization has been increasingly used in economic literature and political discussions as well as in cultural debates. In the past it has swiftly migrated across disciplinary boundaries. It has been rapidly assimilated and consumed by anthropologists, sociologists, political scientists, economists, geographers, and other scholars, and even in everyday conversations.

Globalization is often perceived as an emergent phenomenon that is driven by the changing nature of economic and international relationship. There is a widely held view that globalization is related to the international movement of commodities, money, information, people, and ideas; and the development of technology, organizations, legal systems, and infrastructures to allow these movements. Some anthropologists regard globalization as a perspective, rather than reified processes.

It might be suggested that, without ruling out other possibilities, an alternative would be to see globalization in terms of perspective. For those who usually study this question, this alternative would put a brake on the excessive emphasis on periodization and discontinuity, an effect of which is that the old problem of interdependence is largely neglected, as is the historical character of this problem, which in turn is subject to interruptions, cycles, and obvious resumptions that reveal the falsity of any evolutionist view. This makes it possible to relativize discontinuity without necessarily falling back on the opposite, substantialist pole and without having to deny whatever new realities appear (Velho, 1999; p. 322).

By turning `globalization' to a perspective, the scope of observation widens to include contradicting readings of the ongoing processes. In other words, `globalization' does not denote the same thing for every one. There is a wide spectrum of observation, ranging from considering globalization a process that will bring the world together as a `big village', or resisting that process, considering it as a new form of imperialism. Yet, still other people, who are neutral observers, watch silently the new changes in the fields of communication, and politics as inevitable transformation. Arguments in defense or against the process of globalization have their own justifications.

For those who relate between globalization and imperialism, they envision the neo-liberalism as the core of globalization process where the capitalist America is determined to control the world economically and politically after the demise of the Soviet Union, and the end of cold war. The US as a mono-polar power has become capable of steering the world economy toward capitalism. On the political dimension, the US has been creating allies around the world to spread its political philosophy.

Scholars have been investigating and speculating upon the impact of globalization on world politics and economics. For Marxism-oriented scholars (Hannerz, 1996; cited in Tsing, 2000; pp. 340-342) the cultural flows run from the central economically powerful countries to the less powerful peripheries. From this perspective, the economic supremacy of the developed countries opens channels for incorporating and remaking the cultural set up of the developing countries. Here, there is an obvious economic determinism where, culture becomes an epiphenomenon of economy.

It is noteworthy that developed countries exert disproportional influence over organizations (UN Security Council, the IMF, the World Bank, World Trade Organization, and others). Lipman (2005, p. 316) notices that there are powerful global and national forces bent on dominating the world politically, economically, and militarily. She argues that what emerged was a shift to neoliberalism as national and global strategy. Obviously, Lipman identifies neoliberalism with globalization and draws its central features as observed in the unregulated global flows of capital, multinational agreements to liberalize trade. From that perspective, every sphere of economic, social, cultural, and biological life is now a potential commodity and open to privatization, from education to the human genome irregardless of the consequences of those strategies on the poor and less advantageous countries. Harvey (1989) adds that in the present situation the territorial logic of the US state, aligned with the interests of finance capital, is acting to reassert US dominance over the global capitalist economy through military power.

This attempt to dominate does not go unchallenged, according to Lipman (2005, p. 317) there are resistances that are global in scope. This resistance hindered the World Trade Organization (WTO) in Seattle in 1999 and the Fair Trade Agreement of the Americas in Cancún in 2003 to realize their goals. Most significant, the world witnesses global social movements of farmers, workers, environmentalists, human rights activists, landless people, women, indigenous people, students, and intellectual and cultural workers. Those movements resist the hegemony of capitalism, aspiring social justice freedom for all and peace in the world. She goes on to say that "there are now two globalizations—one from above and the other from below". Smith and Guarnizo (1998, p. 4) recognize these global movements from below when they build their observation within the context of transnationalism as an outcome of globalization. They assert that transnationalism could be celebrated as an attempt to escape control and domination from above by capital and state by creating global movements from below among grass roots. Given the declining political influence of working-class movements in the face of the global reorganization of capitalism, all sorts of new social actors on the transnational stage are now being invested with oppositional possibilities, despite the fact that their practices are neither self-consciously resistant nor even loosely political in character.

From another level of perception, Kearney (1995 cited in Tsing, 2000; p. 343) argues that the key feature of the global era is the `implosion' of center and periphery, as distinctions south and north disintegrate. Spatial and cultural discriminations become impossible in a world of global flows. It is argued that the flow of information, ideas, people, and commodities create a world with no boundaries and no distinctions.

From this perspective, one of the important features of globalization is our interconnectedness. In a world of integrated economy, regional labor migration plays an important role in cultural transmission as well as it eases the economic and demographical pressure from overpopulated countries. Remittances are used for improving the standard of living of families of migrants, and changing their style of life. The flow of money goes from the rich countries to the poorer, and that is for the betterment of the whole world.

We also face global problems from a holistic perspective. For example, the greenhouse impact is a global issue that required an international policy to protect our future life on earth; poverty is not a local issue that concerns the poor alone, it has increasingly become the focus of the international community. Heads of states gathered under the umbrella of the United Nations' General Assembly, and set the Millennium Goals where they affirmed that they "have a collective responsibility to uphold the principles of human dignity, equality, and equity at the global level", and that they would spare no effort to free men, women, and children from the abject and dehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty, to which more than a billion of them are currently subjected. They declared their determination to making the right to development a reality for everyone and to freeing the entire human race from want.

Moore (2006, p. 1) affirms that our economic and political systems, environmental and social problems, and unstable international situation—these are all interconnected with one another. They can only be understood from a whole systems perspective. We don't have a list of individual problems to solve—rather we have a `dysfunctional system' that needs to be somehow reconfigured, i.e., transformed.

Hence, the international community has become concerned with world problems from a holistic perspective. Eradication of poverty, sustainable development, preservation of natural resources, and keeping our environment clean are globally shared. These interests form a base for global policies that tie the world together toward realizing shared goals, and hence, create an area of mutual interests that ease the tension and conflicts.

As extension of the previous perception on the political level, our interconnectedness as a result of globalization will gradually make `democracy' the best choice for all nations. That is how Fukuyama (1992) perceived the `end of history'. Fukuyama argument about the `end of history' stems from the premise that humankind shares a directional universal history. This argument has its root in the 19th century philosophy. For, despite the fact that Hegel and Marx had different conclusions for history's direction, they both were convinced that there would come a point where humankind would reach envisioned political system that would finalize human being search for liberty, equality, and justice. Based on economic interpretation of history, communism formed the end goal of human progression for Marxism. The demise of the Soviet Union defeated that utopian dream. Here, where Fukuyama based his argument and saw history as taken its direction in favor of liberal democracy. Fukuyama argued that while earlier forms of government were characterized by defects and irrationalities that led to their eventual collapse, liberal democracy was arguably free from such fundamental internal contradictions. This futuristic approach did not turn blind eyes to the contradictions of the capitalist societies. For him, those problems were ones of incomplete implementation of the twin principles of liberty and equality on which modern democracy was founded, rather than of flaws in the principles themselves (Fukuyama, 1992).

Globalization seems to enhance the process of reaching liberal democracy worldwide, yet since September 11, 2001, history takes another turn, the destruction of the twin towers in New York took the world by storm, and war against terror went so far that it has become terrifying. Fukuyama criticized the US policy in Iraq, and the neoconservatism which the US administration represented. He said: "neoconservatism as both a political symbol and a body of thought has evolved into something that I can no longer support" (New York Times, February 19, 2006). He understood well that the American Project aimed at democratizing the Middle East, but he was equally aware that democracy did not guarantee the coming of political regimes that represented the value of the west. Hamas success in Palestine and the Muslim Brothers' growing popularity in Egypt gave fundamentalism political power, and would lead to `oppression' in one way or another. Moreover, they would be culturally bounded and isolated.

Accordingly and against previous expectations, democracy does not seem to bring liberty in many parts of the world. Fukuyama blamed the US policy for that outcome. "The administration's second-term efforts to push for greater Middle Eastern democracy, introduced with the soaring rhetoric of Bush's second Inaugural address, have borne very problematic fruits" (New York Times, February 19, 2006). Despite these set backs, Fukuyama still hold to his view, seeing liberal democracy as a common aspiration for all nations, and it will be realized naturally once people satisfy their need of technological advancement.

This vision emphasizes the unilineal approach to history that was criticized by the American anthropological school led by Boas early in the 20th century. Moreover, this vision focuses on western history, and ignores the interconnectedness of humankind history where, each civilization participated in the making of the present world with its complexity, and the viability of other civilizations to participate in the process of future changes.

As a result of their concern of cultures and civilizations' emergence and development, anthropologists are aware of the dynamism of cultural changes and diffusions, and build their expectations accordingly. Some of them expected cultural diffusions and confusions in today's world as a result of globalization (Clifford, 1988; Flax, 1990; and Weiner 1995). In a presidential address to the American Anthropological Association as early as 1993, Weiner expressed her concern about the future of anthropology, envisioning the cultural dissolution as inevitable. "In the vast circulation of goods and ideas where boundaries evaporate and space and time are electronically compressed, things become different kinds of property and thereby even more elusive to traditional academic categorization. Can anthropology's concept of culture adequately contain the interpenetrating control of manifold agents and interests, were even the geopolitics are obscure? The terms `American', `European', `tribal' and `third world' no longer stand for the kinds of ethnographic and historical entities they once represented, while the Web of global political and economic conditions becomes ever more obscure, as centers and margins no longer can be differentiated" (Weiner, 1995; pp. 18-19).

Against expectations, the centers and margins are still differentiated, and more emphasis on cultural identity and local traditions become global phenomena (Velho, 1999; and Ghannam, 2002). For, despite cultural diffusion and the attractions of the American style of life, individuals are inspired by their cultures in their choices and behavior. While people move around the world and have access to news and events that are occurring thousands of miles away from where they live, they are bounded by their `religious', `national', and `cultural' identities.

Tsing (2000, p. 339) introduces her observations on how anthropologists perceived globalization: "Anthropologists do not merely mimic the understandings of globalism of other experts, even as they are influenced by them. No anthropologist I know argues that the global future will be culturally homogeneous; even those anthropologists most wedded to the idea of a new global era imagine this era as characterized by `local' cultural diversity. Disciplinary concern with cultural diversity overrides the rhetoric of global cultural unification pervasive elsewhere, even though, for those in its sway, globalism still rules: Diversity is generally imagined as forming a reaction or a backdrop to the singular and all-powerful `global forces' that create a new world."

While anthropologists are aware of diversity of cultures as a fact that is not going to be changed (at least in the near future if ever), the question is: Will these diversities mean necessarily clashes of civilization? Another related issue poses itself, if clashes of civilizations are not the only outcome of cultural diversities—Would it be possible to move ahead and remove cultural barriers? or to put it differently: What make us—people unable to exploit the power of easy communication in a way that makes us closer; rather than apart? These questions lead us to inquire about the possibility to rediscover universal cultural values that bind us together.

Globalization and Relativism

Cultural relativism is a notion that emerged to counter the trend of human science in the 19th century which envisions history progressing in a linear path, and western culture values prevailed as the most advanced in the world. With the notion of modernity as the cultural aspect of the western modernization, non-western (specifically non- European) nations have to proceed in the same direction in order to be classified as developed. It is assumed that western culture introduces advanced human universal values.

On the academic level, the argument of finding a common ground for all cultures, religions, and civilizations to live in peace, has been discussed by anthropologists, philosophers, and intellectuals. In anthropology, Boas (1901) criticized the European racism disguised under the notion of `modernity' and unilinear progress of history. Boas, who was convinced that each culture has a holistic structure of its own that should be understood by anthropologists through empathy, opened the way for his followers to study other cultures, using different plans and methodologies, trying to avoid their cultural biases. To be sure, the founding fathers of social sciences were influenced by Darwinism, depicting history to be progressing along the line of western values, and perceiving other cultures as less progressive, and less civilized. Within this outlook, there was no place for respecting the diversities of cultures; all cultures must come in accord with the western culture as the most developed. The American school of anthropology as represented by Boas had its influence in changing that outlook, and emphasizing relativism. "…, the idea of progress, together with the unilineal state theory of cultural evolution, was discarded, and when concomitantly cultural relativism came to include the normative type, the aim of ethnographic inquiry and the rationale for concentrating on primitive people were transformed. Because the diversity of cultures were not viewed as comprising not a scale of cultural evolution, but rather the range of cultural variability, its aim was taken to be the discovery of principles and theories that might explain the diversity in cultural and social system" (Spiro, 1986; p. 277).

Thus, whether fieldwork was conducted among Indian Americans, Africans or Asians, it was in service of some general theories that were crystallizing in relation to ritual exchange (Malinwoski, 1922), adolescence (Mead, 1928), Segmentary linage system (Evans-Prichard 1940), pattern of cultures (Benedict, 1934), religions and the `model of' and `model for reality' (Geertz, 1973). Other anthropologists became concerned with applied fields, such as cultures and development or culture in politics, economics, and education. Anthropology then widens its scope to include human activities at large. As a matter of fact, the relativity of cultures brings the study of others' cultures to a humanistic level where, anthropologists appreciate different world views and ethos. Therefore, anthropologists experience `humanness' beyond their cultural limitations and biases, and introduce as such, a model for how we are able to come together.

Yet, anthropology has faced theoretical and practical dilemma. On the theoretical level, relativism generated particularistic cultural determinism, which holds that inasmuch as cultures are radically different from each other, each culture produces a set of culturally particular human characteristics (Spiro, 1986; and Renteln, 1988). It is interesting to see that how this way of thinking influences political scholars, such as Huntington (1996) who stresses the uniqueness of western culture, and the impossibility to find a common ground between cultures and civilizations. He argues that as people define their identity in ethnic and religious terms, they are likely to see an "us" versus "them" relation existing between themselves and people of different ethnicity or religion. The end of ideologically defined states in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union permits traditional ethnic identities and animosities to come to the fore. For him western civilization is intrinsically different from `other' civilizations. The implication is that western civilization is more advanced, and since other civilizations are not capable of digesting it as a whole, it is not possible to cope with; they are likely to resist its principles. Therefore, clashes of civilizations are inevitable. He is convinced that the time has come for the West to abandon the illusion of universality and to promote the strength, coherence, and vitality of its civilization in a world of civilizations. Huntington goes further as far as differentiating between modernization and westernization—a notion that has great appeal to the non-western countries. For those countries, there has always been and still is the dilemma of how to modernize one's country without losing the cultural values and identity. Removing this contradiction between modernization and particularities of cultures is not only an ideological perspective, but also a factual reality. The experiences of China, Japan, and Malaysia confirm his approach.

However, Huntington's approach depicts Asian and Islamic civilizations as a threat to the West. Accordingly, diversities of cultures and civilizations are observed as foundation for conflicts. The event of 9/11 was observed as a confirmation of his analysis. The political contexts of this incident were overlooked; the policy of the US in the Middle East was not considered as part of frustration and accumulated rejection in this part of the world. Al-Qaeda as the ideological base for acts against the interests of the US does not represent Muslims at large, or the Islamic ideology. Al-Qaeda also forms a threat to many political regimes in the area which do not conform to their ideology. Moreover, Huntington's analysis oversimplify the complexities of cultural changes that take place as a result of easy communication and movements of ideas, and the increasing activities of cultural debates on grass root organization around the world.

Moreover, the very idea of anticipating clashes with other civilizations has created fear among Westerners as Moïsi (2007) observes. She argues that the expected clashes of civilization moved to the emotional level. For example, the western world displays a culture of fear; the Arab and Muslim worlds are trapped in a culture of humiliation. Both fear and humiliation created aggression and violence with different modalities of expression, as demonstrated in `wars against terror', and violent individual acts against western (American) symbols in the Muslims world. Criticism of separation and isolation under the theme of relativity is expressed by an American anthropologist as: "…the anxiety over cultural difference may also be seen as a historical peculiarity of the late 20th century, reflecting the fact that we are acutely self-conscious of our prodigious power and wealth. Indeed, so troubled are we by our dominant position that the mere identification of another has come to be equated with deprecation: It is as if labeling another as different from us must surely be some kind of put-down, a pejorative, at least implicitly. Hence, the paralyzing contradiction of contemporary multicultural discourse: While diversity in the abstract is celebrated, to objectify particular differences has become unacceptable (Bashkow, 2004; p. 454).

Having discussed the western view related to `relativity of culture', it is time to ponder about problems that have risen from the non-western countries in relation to the process of globalization, and relativism. Those countries also perceive the western hegemony as a threat to their cultural beliefs and dogmas. In the area of human rights, non-western countries have their reservations against the Universal Human Rights Declaration (UHRD). They stress the relativity of cultures as a way-out from the international pressure that requires them to conform to human rights principles according to western standard. Many countries protest against the UHRD, agreed upon by the General Assembly of United Nations in 1948, and the following covenants, namely the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESC), and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), both were adopted in 1966. China, India, and several other countries of the Islamic world—notably Iran, Sudan, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Saudi Arabia—have been stressing the necessity to view human rights from the perspective of the historical and cultural context of each country or civilization. In September 1992, the final declaration of a conference of the 108 nonaligned countries, held at Jakarta, Indonesia, stressed "differences in cultures" in relation to human rights should be recognized.

This request sounds justifiable and its violations seem to be against the very reason why Universal Human Rights Declaration is needed in the first place. In other words, respect of differences is in the very essence of `human rights'. However, watching closely on some practices that are considered acceptable for indigenous people may evoke rejection at global level, coming from the world at large.

For example, the cast system in India is part of the Indian social order, and is taken for granted. The social, religious, cultural, and economic rights of members of the castes are predetermined in advance by birth (Thorat, 2007). This Indian social order violates the first Article in UHRD "all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights". This Article has an appeal to most of the people around the world, but cannot be implemented as long as Indian religious beliefs have their justification for cast.

In Muslim world, many Muslim countries violate another basic principle in the UHRD, that principle which assures equality for every human being regardless of race, color, sex, language (Article 2). For example, women are marginalized, and in many cases are used and abused. It is problematic to justify their practices by referring to Shari'a. Shari'a, as they explain, is the Divine Law that was revealed to Prophet Muhammad and documented in Qur'an. In Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, many articles conform to the UHRD, yet there is always an added phrase to emphasize the role of Shari'a as a grand frame of reference, and hence, open the door for justifying acts that violate the UHRD.

In most cases, peoples confuse between jurisprudence and Shari'a. The role of jurisprudence has been to find out a harmony between Qur'an guidance, and Prophet Muhammad's traditions Sunnah and new situations in social relations. Shari'a is a blueprint, not a fixed legal system. It is inspiring to Muslims when they build their constitutions and legal systems. As such, any interpretation and implementation to Shari'a is susceptible to criticism and modification. By blurring the distinction between Shari'a and jurisprudence, Islam has been used to serve the interests of rulers, or to affirm local traditions that marginalize women, or falsify poor peoples' social consciousness.

Due to the use of the notion of cultural particularities and moral relativism, oppression and suppression within given cultures are practiced. On the theoretical level, the paradox in this issue is apparent. While, respect of the particularities of culture forms a part and parcel of human rights, the denial of minimum moral human universal rights implies that there is no way to condemn actions that are considered from `humane' standards against human dignity and freedom. Would that lead us intellectually to the notion of human universals as constant variables beyond place and time? How can we define `human universals' without being biased by one's cultural prejudices?

The following incident explains the complexity of the subject, it shows how easily what seems universally acceptable may show prejudice. Under the claim of respecting freedom of expression as a basic principle that should be acknowledged worldwide, the Danish Prime Minister turned a deaf ear to listen to ethnic Muslims community in Denmark who expressed their dissatisfaction when a Danish journalist drew satirical caricatures of Prophet Muhammad. He also refused to meet the ambassadors from Islamic countries who wanted to express their protests. The incident occurred in September 2005. In February 2006, Muslims fury reached its climax when the same caricatures were published by other European newspapers, and active Danish Muslims leaders succeeded to reach out to larger section of Muslims for support. People—not governments—decided to boycott Danish products. For weeks, numerous demonstrations and other expressions of protests against the cartoons took place worldwide. Danish economic interests were greatly harmed. The Danish Prime Minister had to explain the situation insisting that the cultural value standard of his country is not understandable to Muslims, forgetting at the same time that he also should understand how Muslims feel about their prophet.

It is clear from incidents like this, how under the notion of freedom, other people's beliefs were ridiculed, and their emotions were humiliated. Worse still, Muslims were accused of being intolerant, just because they objected to what they consider a grave humiliation. Tolerance, hence, became a false claim. In other words under advocating tolerance, intolerance was practiced.

Anthropology has a saying about this dilemma. It is agreeable by many anthropologists, with different approaches (Geertz, 1973; Spiro, 1986; and Renteln, 1988), that relativism is meant to promote the understanding of other cultures and go beyond one's cultural prejudices. In so doing, relativism focuses on how to facilitate communications among cultures and civilizations, and to seek common ground for building bridges between civilizations.

Anthropologists are capable of facilitating that process albeit there are different approaches. For example, while Geertz was concerned on building a methodology that is helpful in the process of interpretations of a culture, Spiro insists on the importance of cross-cultural comparative method as a way to establish well-founded theories that explain diversities. Others see that relativism as compatible with the existence of cross-cultural moral universals. In sum, anthropologists come to the consensus that to accept others' ways of thinking is the first step to build a harmonious global world. Boundaries then are not meant to isolate people, but to acknowledge their free will to choose their own way. However, boundaries may sometimes form barriers.

Boundaries vs. Barriers

"The most important thing to understand about the world today is not how life is lived within and on either side of borders, but instead how borders are made" (Rosenblatt, 2004; p. 264).

Within cultural relativism, the idea of considering cultures as whole entities that should not be judged from outside its frame of reference, directs anthropologists towards searching for `patterns of cultures' (Benedict, 1934), model of and model for realities (Geertz, 1973), or seek to understand the integration of a culture within a given society. However, this depicted picture of each culture as distinct entities did not hinder anthropologists from seeing cultural processes as dynamic. Cultures give to and receive from other cultures beyond defined borders, and hence, they are susceptible to changes over time. Further, anthropologists are aware that patterns of cultures are likely to acquire their regularity in the base of day-to-day practices; the changing of social order is likely to introduce new situations and hence, new perceptions that require from individuals to reconstruct their previous patterns. Understanding the dialectics between individuals who create new meanings as a continuous process and `culture' as an abstract entity that shapes their world views and perspectives, is important to grasp cultural changes. In Egypt, for example, Valentine Day is widely celebrated, but in an Egyptian way. Family members would send cards to their parents, friends also, and not restricted to their lovers only. Egyptians Islamized Pharaonic traditions; they mourn for 40 days for their deceased as their ancestors used to do, so they mix between Islamic beliefs coming to them from beyond their borders and their old belief system. Their folklores are greatly influenced by their cultural histories, but they import and add to them continuously. Therefore, the same symbolic act may change its meaning gradually over time, which requires from the anthropologist to examine and re-examine what they understand about a given culture by observing the context within which acts, speech, body movement or any expressive behavior, takes place. The anthropologist then is able to discover layers of meanings for the same symbolic action. That what Geertz (1973) called `thick description'. Cultural distinct characters may continue to exist even though the symbolic system (using Geertz definition of culture) changes; `old wine in new bottle' or `old bottles have new wine'. Ideas, values, and all other cultural elements were and still are crossing borders and mingled with the existing cultural system in a given society. This has not ended the diversities of culture. Cultural boundaries are not considered barriers that hinder the flow of cultural communication; rather from an anthropological view, boundaries are analytical mental categories that allow us to see "cultural distinctions that were irreducibly plural, perspectival and permeable" (Bashkow, 2004; p. 443). By accepting that definition, anthropologists are able to appreciate the particularity of each culture and be able to recognize its uniqueness even in the processes of change. Unlike boundaries, cultural barriers are the outcome of ethnocentrism that hinders communication.

Within the process of globalization, some anthropologists raise the question of whether the density of movement of people, objects, and ideas from place to place meant that the idea of `divided and distinct cultures' will no longer be valid (Appadurai, 1996; and Gupta and Ferguson, 1997). The complexity of changes that are taking place in the world makes it difficult to answer this question positively or to predict the coming transformation. While, migration, culture diffusion, interconnectedness, weakening of nationalism and the growing transnationalism attract the attention of anthropologists (Foner, 2005; George, 2005; and Hansen, 2005), the rise of fundamentalism in almost all religions (Armstrong, 2001; and Mijares et al., 2007), and the emphasis on cultural identities, and the stress on the particularities of each `culture', `religion', `traditions' are equally important for anthropological studies.

It is argued that the complexity of our world today creates different borders where, culture and geographical territories are not the only signs for cultures' borders. Borders and barriers live in the mind of people who are affiliated to certain ideologies regardless of where they live. It is noticed that cyberspace is growing stronger in shaping people world views and perspective, and it is a place where interactions take place and create the necessary feeling of belonging and attachment, that is to say, people create territories which cannot be materialized and hence become difficult to observe. For example, Al-Qaeda organization is impossible to trace to one place, their affiliates are everywhere, and will not be known unless some acts of violence occur somewhere. The event of September 11, 2001 was shocking, not only because some terrorists targeted institutions in the most powerful country in the world, but also because there was no organized army that could be traced, no clear institutionalized body that could be seen in the US. Actors do not receive orders directly from a central authority, but they have clear goals and take all necessary measures to achieve those goals. Their ideological commitment is so strong that they do not hesitate to sacrifice their lives to realize certain goals. So, even killing Osama bin Laden will not end the acts of terror, as those who share bin Laden ideology are not located in one place, and do not derive their power from the institutionalized body, but from their attachment to certain beliefs. Those beliefs isolate those so-called Muslims from the rest of the human community, and deepen the differences between themselves and the rest of the world. This phenomenon of creating groups through space is related to globalization and requires more investigation. This paper expects this subject to be the focus of future studies. In relation to cultural barriers, it is more important to study the mental structure of those who build walls between themselves and others and search for the ideological root of that isolation. Apparently, demonizing the other is one important element in building those barriers, and it is worth investigating how this element manifests in religions at large (Mijares et al., 2007). It is interesting to see how dichotomizing the world to `we' against `them' moves from fundamentalists in different religions to political theory in the form of expected `clashes of civilizations' and the `end of history'. Huntington (1996) saw the military confrontation in Algeria (1960), Egypt (1956) and elsewhere between European countries as a war between the West and Arabs. He did not see these wars in their historical contexts where occupied countries were defending their right to be independent sovereign nations. He carried on his argument to stress the inherent enmity between East and the West. It is the same mental structure of `fundamentalists' who perceive the world through the glass of black and white, and who are defending their beliefs from the same perspective that `we are the best'. The Project of New American Century (PNAC) reflects the envisioned role of the US as a leader of the world, and a fighter for spreading democracy and defending human rights. Those are so noble slogans on the abstract level, but create human tragedies on the real ground.

The Project for a New American Century from the beginning saw itself as an agent of bold change, one that could strengthen Israel as well as the US. Just a year before its founding, in 1996, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu was presented a report that recommended repudiation of the Oslo Accords and the whole idea of "land for peace", and instead called for the seizure of the West Bank and Gaza Strip as well as encouraging an outright invasion of Iraq by the US. It then suggested the next items that should be on the agenda: toppling the governments of Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Iran. This report, entitled "A Clean Break: A New Strategy for Securing the Realm", was coauthored by Perle, Feith and David Wurmser, who now works at the State Department under Bolton. A few days later these ideas, which would later become key policies of both Netanyahu and Sharon, were endorsed by the editorial page of The Wall Street Journal. In the next few years, John Bolton and others wrote essays for the PNAC and for the neo conservative press that expounded upon these three themes: expanding Israel, taking out Iraq, and subduing the rest of the Middle East in one way or another. By the fall of 2002, advocates of this position were sharing their enthusiasm with the mainstream media. Interviewed in The Boston Globe, Meyrav Wurmser, wife of David Wurmser and director of the Center for Middle East Policy at the ultra-right Hudson Institute, was enthusiastic about the extended effects of the US establishing "democracy" in Iraq: "Everyone will flip out, starting with the Saudis. It will send shock waves throughout the Arab world. After a war with Iraq, then you really shape the region".

What seemed to be a reaction to a terrorist attack had been planned for, long before the incident of 9/11. Nothing would have prevented the allied military force from attacking Afghanistan and then Iraq for their oil, and their strategic geographical positions, and for domination, and demolishing of threatening political systems. This determination of control and domination create resistance which enhance the attitude of `us' against `them' which will increase barrier and hinder communication and hence destroy the hope of living in a secure world.

On another level of perception, it is noticeable that those barriers are not merely built through international relations, but also divide the same society to heterogeneous groupings, despite their interdependent social relationship. It is well-known in social science that in a complex society, there is one embracing cultural built-up, and subcultures that emerge from within the main culture. The main culture is essential for the society survival. Society is essentially an abstract concept that lives within the mind of those who share the same land and interact on the base of common values. Even in Marxism, society is an abstract concept that is deduced from historical experiences. It was supposed that history would move towards realizing communism as the last stage of human evolution, and that homogeneity would replace the conflict between classes. Structural functionalism and Marxism have their limitations as frames of reference in analyzing the disintegration of social order in societies around the world today. Emergence of conflicting cultures within the same society replaces the old idea of `conflicting classes'. High and low classes may share the same beliefs and habits, because they are exposed to `global' forces through advanced means of communication. The notion that culture is a reflection of social structure is not working in its classical form; rather the role of individuals as cultural transmitters and cultural creators exceed the role of the society and its formal institutions and structure.

Taking the Egyptian society as a reference point, migrations to Saudi Arabia since the 1970s have had their impact on the returning migrants who carried with them the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, and introduce this interpretation to a society where its culture has been one of the most open to `other cultures and civilizations' The coming of Wahhabi doctrine in Egypt does not fit with the tolerant Islam lived by Egyptians through the ages. Migrants who were exposed to Saudi culture do not come from one class, one profession, or similar educational system. They came from different strata and profession in the Egyptian society. Yet the growing trend of this doctrine is threatening to the homogeneity of the authentic Egyptian cultures, and creates barriers between the authentic cultural set up of the Egyptians, and those newly emerging groups. Parallel to this trend, the Muslim Brotherhood informal organization is gaining political ground, following a strategy that stimulate democracy lovers, by asserting their adherence to democratic principles and, at the same time, stresses the religious discourse in order to have an appeal to common Egyptian people. Their growing popularity forms a threat to the Egyptian intelligentsia, the socialists, and liberals, and of course to the National Democratic Party as the ruling party today. However, the Muslim Brotherhood organization has advantages over other parties and organizations because it works on the grass root level and introduce medical and educational services, while, other political parties and organizations do not have the same access to the grass roots. Their very existence as a viable political force is threatening to Copts. The Muslim Brotherhood informal organization stresses the Islamic Egyptian identity, and is expected to alienate the Copts who consider themselves the native Egyptians, and descendents from the Pharaonic civilization. The growing popularity of the Muslims Brotherhood could create barriers between Copts and Muslims within the Egyptian society.

Growing fundamentalism can also be seen among the Copts. On a satellite channel, an Egyptian priest attacks Islam systematically, and Coptic communities in the US have been lobbying to defend Copts' human rights in Egypt. Sometimes, they exaggerate the situation with an obvious biased tone. This is very threatening to social peace in Egypt, and is likely to assist in building barriers between Muslims and Copts. However, the Orthodox Church headed by the pope Shenouda III advises Copts to keep sectarianism away, and to hold on to national unity. The Coptic Evangelical Organization for Social Services mission is "dedicated to social and cultural development, individual well-being, social justice and intercultural harmony. It delivers its services regardless of gender, race, religion, or beliefs. As a Christian voice promoting pluralism and mutual respect in an Egyptian context, CEOSS encourages the participation of Egyptians from all segments of society—Muslim and Christian, rich and poor, educated and uneducated, powerful and powerless—to work together toward common goals". As such the Evangelical Church defend the Copts right in a smart way, through easing the sectarian tension, and emphasize the Egyptian-ness, they create secure boundaries as minorities.

The formal Islamic institution Al-Azhar has political and economic ties with Saudi Arabia's religious institutions, and keeps in harmony with Wahhabi doctrine, perhaps for political reasons. However, Al-Azhar makes clear that any act of violence in the name of Islam should be banned. As part of the formal governance, Al-Azhar does not approve the Muslim Brotherhood political practices, although it accepts their ideology in relation to how to establish Islamic society. Al-Azhar stands at a distance from the religious turmoil that takes place in the Egyptian society.

In Egypt, the emphasis on the cultural identity through Islam has been acknowledged by many studies (Ibrahim, 1980; and Rafea, 2001). Even Copts who have their own beliefs and practices are influenced by Islam as a cultural root. Copts use the same religious phrases that Muslims use, and keep the same values of Muslims in relation to honor, honesty, marriage traditions, and so on and so forth. Up to the second half of the 20th century, Copts shared with Muslims the same dress codes. The 1919 revolution in Egypt exemplifies the national unity between Muslims and Copts. Under the slogan "Egypt for Egyptians", the Copts fought hand in hand with their Muslim brothers for a national independence.

With the religious revivals that started in the 1970s as to replace the Arab Nationalism failure after the defeat of Arabs in their war with Israel in 1967, the Islamic discourse has changed to separate between Egyptian Muslims and Copts, and moves toward fanaticism, influenced by Wahhabi doctrine. It must be clear that Islamic groups in Egypt do not echo identical ideology. It is amazing to see how within the religious Islamic movements, ideologies have been crossing and intersecting. Muslim Brothers, for example, relate their emergence to Sufism, as their founder Hasan el-Bana liked to describe himself as a Sufi, and their discourse lately is full of promises for democratic life in Egypt. Among the leftists emerged a new trend by a philosophy professor Hasan Hanfi who merges between Marxism and Islam, advocating for Left Islam, and Nasr Abuzid who calls for a secular Islam. The combinations between Marxism, secularism and Islam are bizarre, and unexpected, but they have their audience. This interrelationship between different ideologies, and world views that repeat the same `discourse'; following mainly the teaching of Qur'an and the guidance of the Prophet Sunnah, makes dialoging between them difficult. On the one hand, each group thinks they express the `right and correct' Islam. As such, there will be nothing to discuss. Second, because they echo the same rhetoric, their differences are hidden and appear only through conflicts in the social ground. Barriers here are strangely built as a result of apparent similarities, not differences.

The other extreme is to examine borders, boundaries, and barriers as they are built for Muslims' ethnic minorities in Europe. Muslims as French citizens in a secular country are supposed to base their identity on what it means to be French over any religious affiliation. Yet, their attachment to the global community Umma manifested through dress code, food, and their general style of life evokes different feelings among non-Muslims. The French Government banned wearing any distinct dress code in schools and in all government institutions, including the Sikh turbans, the Jews hats, and so on. The goal is to break cultural borders. Yet, cultural boundaries remain in the way of French Muslims and other ethnic group think of who they are. Muslims can be incorporated into "France", but only as French speaking citizens who make an effort to leave behind their foreign attachments and to resemble other citizens in matters deemed critical to defining "France". The state thereby affirms the importance of maintaining boundaries that are both of the state and of the nation, as a counterweight to new internal pluralisms, pace the call by many scholars for a new pluralism of political boundaries (Brown, 2004; p. 53) (emphasis are in the original text).

Following the aftermath of 9/11, Islamophobia overwhelm non-Muslims in Europe and North America (Bunzl, 2005). It has become a problem in these countries to keep up with their self-image as tolerant and open in a situation where their obvious rejection to ethnic Muslims is apparent. On the other hand, how Muslims in France can maintain their loyalty to the Umma, and to their country France on equal foot? This problem is repeated in other countries where Muslims are minority and their identity is confused. Anthropologists are increasingly interested in investigating how ethnic minorities—including Muslims—live within the culture of the majority which may contradict with their basic values.21

Conclusion

Due to different changes that are taking place as a result of globalization, the old definitions of the relationship between society and culture are not exclusive any more. Culture does not crystallize necessarily according to face-to-face interaction in a given society; it is formed in relation to the experiences of individuals and their special capabilities to access the world through cyberspace, movements, or any means of communication that provide interaction. Therefore, it is not surprising to find multicultures that coexit or conflict within the same society. Moreover, it is expected to find individuals who identify themselves with larger groups that exist outside their place of birth and residence. As explained earlier, the Wahhabi-oriented groups in Egypt are more attached to the Saudi than to Egyptian culture. These changes will revolutionize social sciences. New concepts and theories will generate from studying globalization in relation to culture's formation and how borders are defined accordingly.

On the global level, boundaries are drawn in a different way. Dichotomizing human history to the west and the rest creates barriers that become hard to break because it overlaps with the international relationship as controlled by the mono power of the US. The tragedy in Iraq is but one manifestation of American hegemony. Studying the different addresses of G W Bush, and his justifications for waging wars in Afghanistan and Iraq reveals the mental structure of simple dichotomization of the world into two blocs—America and the rest. "Fighting terrorism" has become so broad; it includes whoever stands in the way of American supremacy. The use of what became famous words such as "fighting the axis of evil", or declaring that "who is not with us is against us", emphasizes this pattern of thinking.

There is a need to start thinking in a different way where our history should be tackled from a different perspective, and where our interconnectedness must be emphasized. Old civilizations form the root of our human history, and each civilization contributed to other civilizations. One of the main tasks of contemporary anthropology is to awaken our awareness of how the past is living in the present. Anthropology can illuminate our way by explaining how our modern civilization would never have taken place without the struggles of our ancestors who challenged their wild environments, studied the world, created their understanding of the nature, and passed their knowledge to their offsprings who, in turn, continued on the same path, and so on and so forth, till they created what we call `old civilizations' in Egypt, India, China, Persia, and Mesopotamia. Those civilizations are the root of our presence.

If the present generation do not preserve and study histories and see how Hellenistic civilization was born in the womb of Ancient Egyptian civilization, and how the Islamic civilization paved the way for the renaissance and the enlightenment period in Europe, and how the Islamic civilization learnt from Persian and Indian civilizations as well as from Greeks, we will remain ignorant of our common root. As a result, we will be wasting what our ancestors struggled for, and ignoring pain they bore to make us who we are today.

This awareness of our common history is likely to bring us to the fact that beyond our diversity, there is a common root, and from there, we have to respect each other, and to reconsider our cultural premises, and self-criticize our built realities. These are the basics of anthropology as a systematic discipline. By educating our children through the stories of cultures and civilizations, we can create a common cultural ground without one `civilizations' biases and reach to what is universal.

What is universal about human is the fact that they share `humanness'. As humans we can be biased, prejudiced, and unfair, and as humans, we are able to sympathize, and empathize, and share our joys and pains. In all cultures and civilizations we try to find answers for the perennial questions of the purpose of our existence, and where we come from and where we are heading to. In our attempts to answer those questions, we built a whole structure of meanings expressed in cultural phenomena, be it language, rituals, arts, religions, and so on and so forth. It is the role of anthropology to disentangle the cultural language to facilitate mutual understanding between cultures and civilizations. So, it is not enough to acknowledge the holistic built-up of a culture, it is equally important to be able to build a dialog where barriers are removed and bridges of understanding are established.

While in the 19th century, the founding fathers of social sciences anticipated that scientific methods will be universally shared, and their prediction was realized in the 20th century, it is time to move to make the anthropological methodology a common culture of the world, digging all the time for commonalities, and respecting variability. Boundaries will remain respected, but barriers that hinder communication will diminish.

The role of anthropology should be taken to the heart of conflicts, trying to solve them. Its premises and method may lay a foundation for global cultural changes where people search for building bridges with other cultures and nations through real interests of understanding the other. After all, we share being part of a human family.

Ref. Jr. of History & Culture. Jul-Oct '09.

Can Globalization Lead to Cultural Hegemony?

-- Nitin Gupta,
Faculty Member, IBS, Hyderabad, India.
E-mail: nitgup_2000@yahoo.com

The advent of globalization has ushered a frequent interaction among world cultures. As a result of this phenomenon, we are witnessing the development of a `global culture'. The problem is that this so called global culture is nothing more than an `American culture'. This paper discusses viewpoints of various authors on the questionCan a single culture lead to the hegemonization of all other cultures? Can globalization enforce such a hegemonistic occurrence? The discussion encompasses views and counter views of many intellectuals who have debated on the positive as well as the negative aspects of globalization.

Introduction

The most common definition of globalization is the one that refers to breaking down of national barriers to facilitate trade and commerce. Cultural hegemony is the imposition of a homogeneous global culture through marketing, advertising, laws and other top-down forms of influence.

Interaction between cultures has been happening since time immemorial; but with the development of various communication and transportation facilities, opening up of isolated markets and integration of diverse economies, the world has become a global village. The inevitability of this phenomenon has increased the frequency of interaction among world cultures. This interaction has lead to the amalgamation of various cultures and the development of a `global culture'. However, many people believe that global culture is `western culture' or `American culture', and we are witnessing `cultural imperialism' in the third world countries.

Contrary to the above view, a second school of thought believes that what we are witnessing, as a result of globalization, is `cultural hybridity' or `acculturation' and not cultural imperialism.

Beginning with a brief discussion about culture and the influence of globalization on it, this paper introduces two varied schools of thought dealing with global influences on culture and brings forth the views and counter views of intellectuals who have been debating this issue since the past few decades.

Understanding Culture

The word `culture' originated from the Latin word `colere', means to build on, to cultivate and to foster. Culture is the result of social interaction and assimilation of new ideas. It gives rise to a distinct social group and class that differs from each other. As a result of this phenomenon, we see that in a given macro-cultural environment, many sub-cultures are thriving. This paper, however, lays emphasis on what many authors have called as `national culture'. According to Clark (1990); and Dawar and Parker (1994), in various studies dealing with culture, the authors use nationality as a surrogate for culture. Their rationale for choosing this approach is that members of a given national group not only share a similar historical, political and educational environment, but also share some unique national characteristics. These members may not always speak the same native tongue, but they identify with the same symbols and signs and communicate with each other directly or indirectly in a manner that transcends linguistic boundaries (Douglas and Craig, 1997).

Many authors like Hofstede (1980) have defined culture under the realm of national culture. He defines culture as the collective mental programming of people in an environment. He states that culture is difficult to change and if it changes at all, the change is very slow. Another researcher, Stephen Dahl (2000), describes culture as an onion that is `ordered into' three layers. Here, one peel has to be taken off to see the next layer. The three layers of culture, given by Stephen Dahl (2000) are:

The outer layer: It consists of artifacts and products of culture and is the most explicit of all layers. It includes language, food, architecture, style, art, music, fashion, etc.

The second inner layer: It consists of norms and values pertinent to a particular culture. Norms are "the mutual sense of what is right and what is wrong", while values represent the "definition of what is good and what is bad".

The innermost layer: It consists of the basic assumption and belief of culture, e.g., What is life? Belief in reincarnation, etc.

Various other researchers have defined and explained culture in different ways. Kroeber and Kluckhon (1952) identified over 160 definitions of culture. Though defined and explained differently, the essence of various definitions of culture remains the same. From the body of literature in the area of national culture which is the focus of this paper, various definitions of culture can be synthesized to explain culture as a learned, non-random systematic behavior and knowledge that can be transmitted from generation to generation. Since culture is a learned phenomenon, factors that affect this phenomenon have also been given due importance in the literature. In this paper, globalization is considered as an external factor that influences culture. The following section discusses the viewpoints of various authors who have discussed the impact of globalization on culture.

Impact of Globalization on Culture

The intensification of globalization has increased the interactions among diverse cultural groups. Though a country's home culture has been modified from external influences since time immemorial, it is the frequency and intensity of these influences that has increased in the era of globalization. There is no doubt that the increased frequency with which the two different cultures are meeting has had an impact on them. Featherstone (1996) suggests that there exists a global culture that goes beyond the boundaries of any specific nation-state. McLuhan (1964) also states that the world has become a `global village' where a brand new culture is growing.

According to Jain (2001), millions of people in the host country work for foreign affiliates of MNCs. Though these people lead their personal lives according to their own culture, their professional lives are spent in a foreign environment. The foreign affiliates of MNCs have a high level of integration with their parent corporation and they reflect cultures and values of these parent corporations. Hence, the host country's employees who work in these affiliates may initiate, learn and internalize new values and become channels to diffuse these values further in the culture of the host country at large (Jain, 2001).

The impact of globalization on the national culture and the impact of culture(s) on globalization merit an in-depth discussion and analysis. The question that the intellectuals are trying to answer isWill the impact of globalization on different cultures be positive, negative or neutral? There are writers like Tyler Cowen, whose book Creative Destruction shows the benefits of the globalized world11. Then, there are writers like Benjamin Barber, whose book Jihad vs. Mc World (New York Times Books, 1995) is about anti-globalization. He argues that the world conflict will increasingly center on tensions between local values and globalizing forces. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order, by Samuel Huntington (Simon and Schuster, 1996), discusses the topic of culture and its impact on international relations. It supports the thesis that culture is a great divider among people, but he acknowledges that cultural consolidations have brought the world into a few big blocks.

According to some authors, a positive impact of globalization will lead to diverse cultures maintaining their diversity and co-existing with each other in this globalized arena. Certain amount of amalgamation of cultures will occur but it will not threaten the existence of any specific culture. Globalization will only aid in bringing cultures together. It will be possible to be rooted in one's culture and yet to collaborate with, to understand, to participate in other cultures as well. This will lead to a convergence of world cultures. In other words, we will move to an era of `cultural hybridity' and `creolization'.

The negative impact that is speculated by various authors and researchers is that globalization will lead to the domination of one culture over others. The `global culture' will actually be `western culture' or `American culture'. For many people, the term `globalization' has the same meaning as `westernization', or even `Americanization' (McQuail, 2000, p. 221). It is speculated that the ongoing `cultural imperialism' and `cultural hegemony' will lead to obsolescence of weak cultures. Skeptics feel that the world is moving towards a system where people will be monocultural and monolingual. They warn that future generations will experience global integration at the expense of local disintegration.

Different Perspectives of the Positive or Neutral Impact of Globalization on Culture

Culture impacts every sphere of human existence. In the discussion that follows, predominant concentration is on management, marketing and economic aspects of this phenomenon. Other aspects are also equally important, but each aspect is so varied and multidimensional that an in-depth critical analysis of each of these aspects would lead to a paper of unreasonable length and complexity. Hence, in the interest of depth, the breadth of the paper has been curtailed to a certain extant.

Kogut and Singh (1988) stating the importance of national culture observe that national cultures influence the choice of the entry mode for an MNC. Terry (1990) too has observed that national differences exist and that observed differences have significant bearing on the behavior of both consumers and marketing decision makers.

Newman and Nollen (1996) say that the crux of their research points to the fact that MNCs need to adopt their management practices to national cultures in which they operate in order to achieve high business performance. The authors argue that when management practices are inconsistent with national culture (e.g., in-depth values), the employees are likely to feel dissatisfied, distracted, uncomfortable and uncommitted. This has an adverse effect on their performance. Lenartowicz and Roth (1999) state that understanding the nature and influences of culture is central to international business.

All the above mentioned studies suggest that due to the strength of culture or national culture, it is imperative for global firms or MNCs to change their way of working according to the host country's culture. Thus, if this is the case, then globalization is not a threat to the local or national cultures, as these cultures will not undergo a forced mutation due to the MNCs. It will be the job of the MNCs that are functioning in the host nations to tailor their activities according to the host culture.

Ditcher (1962) found out that there was little empirical evidence regarding the concept of worldwide homogenization of tastes and the preferences of a world consumer even for standardized, low priced quality goods. Though some authors suggest that globalization will influence local culture, this influence will not be detrimental. Even Haig (2003), in his book Brand Failures has given many cases that suggest that it is wrong on a company's part to confuse the era of globalization with the era of homogenization.

Nylund (2001) states that globalization will lead to multi-culturalization of the city, where previously hegemonic unitary cultures are replaced by ethnically mixed cultures. New population groups influence and leave their stamp on the city and urban life, resulting in the emergence of alternative cultures. This process of acculturation or creation of a culturally hybrid society cannot be interpreted as a threat to the existing culture. Indeed, here both the foreign as well as domestic cultures mutate to form a hybrid culture and no culture dominates or subjugates the other culture.

Interestingly, where many researchers consider development and immense reach of media to be one of the facilitators of increasing subjugation of local culture by western cultures, Anthony Reid, Director of the Asia Research Institute noted that although media is one of the potent forces of globalization today, it has been beneficial in helping non-national language communities in Indonesia, East Malaysia, the Philippines, Burma and India. In these countries, cassettes and radio invigorated and helped to standardize the verbal expression of various local languages that were spoken by a minority of people. E.g., Avadhi in India.

Anne Pakir, associate professor, National University of Singapore, states that globalization will lead to amalgamation of cultures without threatening the existence of any culture. She notes that English is "going `glocal', i.e., going global while maintaining local roots". She sees `glocal English' as a language that has international status, but also expresses local identities. Already, more Asians speak English and the kinds of Asian English multiply every year.

The World Bank Report of 1999 states that although local cultural identities remain robust, certain tastes, consumption preferences and elements of lifestyle have acquired a universal currency. However, there is a little evidence that such homogenizing tendencies are on the rise given the strong reassertion of local identities.

A vociferous supporter of globalization, Rothkopf (1997) has stated that globalization promotes integration and leads to the removal of not only cultural barriers but also of many negative dimensions of culture. He further asserts that globalization is a vital step toward botha more stable world and better lives for the people in it. According to him, the current trends that fall under the broad definition of `globalization' are accelerating a process that has taken place throughout the history as discrete groups have become familiar with one another, allied, and commingled-ultimately becoming more alike.

From the above discussion, it is clear that globalization is not a threat to the local cultures. The speculation that globalization will lead to homogenization of cultures is baseless. The maximum that globalization can do is to lead to a slight modification in the existing culture. This modification will be beneficial to local people and will not strip them of their cultural identity.

Different Perspectives of the Negative Impact of Globalization on Culture

Contradicting the view that globalization is not a threat to the existing local culture are many other researchers and authors whose observations and views propagate the fact that the ultimate subjugation of the local cultures by the global culture is inevitable.

Seabrook (2004) considers globalization as a declaration of war upon other cultures. Goswami (2003) opines that globalization is seen as a `Tyrannosaurus Rex' that voraciously gobbles up cultures and traditions. He also state that globalization has brought about `McDonaldization' of societies, most notably through the entry of cultural products like Hollywood movies, US made toys, fast food and pop music.

For many intellectuals, `American culture' sometimes seems to be an invasive alien or even subversive force that weakens, undermines or overrides traditional cultures. This influence of American culture is increasing due to globalization. The Japanese scholar, Toru Nishigaki argues that despite the appearance of multiculturalism, today's global culture is no more than an American monoculture. This monoculture has been founded on the enormous appeal and dominance of the American entertainment industry and on the technological, economical and military power of the US. For Nishigaki, the American plague threatens to infect or relegate all other cultures. Many other intellectuals also show similar fear.

Hong (2000) has stated that as a result of globalization, young people have lost touch with traditional harmonies and tunes. Song and dance, which are specific to regions or villages in Third World countries, are no longer heard. Transnational sound has destroyed cultural diversity. The author has further stated that TV in today's time offers not only entertainment, but also embodies the sheer power and influence of the global corporate culture. It has become the most powerful and insidious tool of mass education in the third world. Western TV programs have led to an increasing westernization of the third world people.

Many authors believe that globalization will lead to cultural imperialism. The theory of cultural imperialism was developed in the 1970s to explain the media situation as it existed at that time. The nature of media (i.e., print, radio and television) at that time, promoted a one-way, top-down transmission system from dominant country to dominated country that theoretically gave rise to a passive audience and a powerful media (Sengupta and Frith, 1997).

Schiller (1976) proposed the use of the term `cultural imperialism' to describe and explain the way large MNCs, including the media of developed countries dominated developing countries. According to White (2001), constructs such as `culture', `dependency', `domination', `media imperialism', `structural imperialism', `cultural synchronization', `electronic colonialism', `communication imperialism', `ideological imperialism' and `economic imperialism' are all present in the literature of cultural imperialism. After reviewing all the differing interpretations of cultural imperialism, it becomes apparent that the essence of cultural imperialism is domination by one nation over another. This is stated by Beltran (1978); who says cultural imperialism is "a verifiable process of social influence by which a nation imposes on other countries its set of beliefs, values, knowledge and behavioral norms as well as its overall style of life" (p. 184).

Another assumption of cultural imperialism is that the media plays a central role in creating culture. White (2001) observes that writers who talk about `cultural imperialism' as `media imperialism', treating the two terms as synonyms, bring into question the centrality of the media in claims of cultural imperialism.

Interestingly, a careful perusal of most of the literature reveals that there is not much empirical support for cultural imperialism as the majority of research does not support this phenomenon. White (2001) brings forth a number of weaknesses that have been identified by various critics of the cultural imperialism theory. He summarizes the views of Ogan (1988),to whom the cultural imperialism theory lacks explanatory power and needs to be advanced beyond the level of pure description. He further quotes Ogan's (1988) views that the economic component of media imperialism may be expressed in statistics, but the cultural component is much more difficult to measure.

To reinforce his argument, White (2001) quotes Lee (1980) who says that the cultural imperialism theory lacks conceptual precision. He also refers to Liebes and Katz (1990), to whom the cultural imperialism theory does not acknowledge an audience's ability to process information and interpret messages differently based on their individual background. Finally, White (2001) concurs with the observation of Sinclair et al. (1996) that the cultural imperialism theory does not hold true in all situations of the phenomenon that it attempts to explain.

Rothkopf (1997), a vociferous supporter of globalization, is also a great supporter of `Americanization' and `cultural imperialism'. He states that:

Americans should not deny the fact that of all nations in the history of the world, theirs is the most just, the most tolerant, the most willing to constantly reassess and improve itself and the best model for the future.

Here he has gone overboard. He thinks that the American culture is the culture of the future and the world should follow it. This is a myopic view of American culture. Perhaps, Rothkopf is completely influenced by ethnocentricity.

Another highly vocal proponent of "globalization leading to homogenization" is Levitt (1983). He argues that despite the deep-rooted cultural differences, the consumers across the world are becoming more alike or `homogenized'. He contends that multinational firms that follow standardization models are bound to do better than the firms who tailor their products to the needs of local markets. Levitt's work is influenced by the work of Buzzel (1968), who pointed out that the world is becoming more and more standardized.

Levitt (1983) claims that if the prices are low, then people across the world will take highly standardized world products even if their custom decrees it as incorrect. He says that different cultural preferences and national tastes are the vestiges of past. Selling a line of product which is individually tailored to each nation is thoughtless, as customers want to enjoy the benefits of global standardization.

Levitt's (1983) argument of homogenization of people's wants and requirements can be further read into and his indication towards a development of a homogeneous culture can be deciphered. If this is the case, then his contentions are really alarming for the proponents of preservation of local cultures world over. But, before getting alarmed, it is interesting to note that many authors have criticized Levitt's theory. One of the prominent critics of this theory, Wind (1985), has been quite critical of Levitt's stand. According to Wind, strategy of developing standardized world brands with common global product features, names and advertising, is at best a special case which is inappropriate for many situations. Wind (1986) has gone a step further and given the phrase "the myth of globalization" to the concept developed by Levitt.

Yip (1989) too has criticized Levitt's argument that companies should learn to operate as though the world were one large market, ignoring superficial regional and national differences. According to Yip (1989), if Levitt's theory is followed, then the potential drawbacks can be dauntingpremature commitments to national markets, inadequate attention to national preferences and overexposure to exchange rate risk. Ultimately, most researchers agree that the best strategy for global markets today is to "think globally, but act locally."

Conclusion

Every new phenomenon has to undergo its own share of doomsday predictions. Today, we are witnessing the doomsday predictions for the indigenous cultures that some feel are on the verge of being usurped by the aggressive wave of globalization. A plethora of viewpoints that have been discussed in the paper support such a pessimistic scenario.

There is also another school of thought that dismisses this scenario and observes that no matter how globalized and integrated the world becomes, the homogenization of the wants, requirements and most importantly, the diverse cultures of the people will remain. The intellectuals holding this viewpoint severely criticize the proponents of `cultural imperialism' and `homogenization'. According to them, predicting a doomsday scenario for the indigenous cultures is like "making a mountain of a mole hill".

The debate between the proponents of the two diverse scenarios is intense. `Cultural hybridity' or `cultural imperialism', `westernization' or `creolization'what does the future have in store for us? Currently, the debate points more towards the scenario that has been predicted by the less radical proponents of cultural change and this is the scenario that talks about cultural hybridity or co-existence of a multitude of cultures. Here, the phenomenon of cultural hegemonization by a single culture is completely negated.

Acknowledgment: The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewer whose feedback and inputs enabled the author to give a better shape to the paper.